Lighting

"At night the young scholar, so-called, had to learn his lesson by fire light, with his back to a jamb of the chimney fire-place. He could not always have the use of candle light, and as for oil lamps, there were no such things--nothing better than tallow dip." [Casket, 19 March 1914]

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Item: OIL LAMP
Date: c. 1920s
Dimensions: approx. 47 cm high and 15.25 cm in diameter at the base

Comments: This kerosene table lamp (with its chimney) is made of pressed glass with a canvas wick as well as specific parts made of metal. Although plain and utilitarian in appearance, there is some geometric detailing around the base of the lamp. A manufacturer's mark on the turning knob reads: "P & A. MFG. CO. Thomaston, Co. Made in USA". The "Made in USA" label clearly confirms the lamp's 20th-century origin.

In the early 19th century, most lamps, whether made of pewter, tin, or blown or pressed glass, used spermaceti (whale) or lard oil. Kerosene or coal oil (the first lamp fluid advertised as non-explosive) was commercially available by the 1860s. After its introduction to Canadian society, the kerosene or coal oil lamp became very popular. The fuel was regarded as safe, cheap, and relatively odourless. There developed a great variety of lamp shapes and shades; depending on design and colour, prices ranged from 50 cents to $3.50. Despite the existence of electricity in urban areas, these lamps served as the primary source of lighting in rural communities until they finally had access to electricity in 1930s. Lamps were very popular and were in high demand. Their light was superior to the candle, although cleaning and trimming the wick could be time-consuming and messy. Many women opted to clean and fill their own lamps rather than trust this task to their household servants. Because kerosene was cheap and widely affordable to most Canadian households, it was possible to have several lamps in one house. The kerosene lamp had to compete with gas lighting which made inroads in urban centres during the late 19th century, when it was used to light public streets and buildings as well as the homes of the affluent. With improvements to lighting, a new world of possibilities opened up in terms of social interactions and activities. According to Susan Strasser, "Gas and electricity, the new fuel for home heating and lighting, altered family relations not only by changing the Americans' sense of household space but by totalling revamping their conception of time."

Jessica Brodribb

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Item: CANDLE MOULD
Date: mid-19th century
Dimensions: approx. 17.8 cm wide and 24.1 cm high

Comments: This candle mould is made of sheet metal. It lacks decorative detailing and there are several dents indicating wear and tear. Although there are no identifying marks showing where the object was made, moulds such as this were commonplace household items. Candles served as the universal source of light in the home until well into the 20th century. There were two popular methods for making candles: dipping them repeatedly by hand or by using a candle mould. The mould was more efficient than dipping. Tallow was poured into the mould after the wicks were secured to a wire or nail laid across the top opening of each mould. After the cooling process, the mould was quickly placed in hot water and the candles removed and left to harden.

In Canada, as elsewhere, candlemaking was largely a domestic activity done by women in the household, although it was possible to purchase ready-made candles, both moulded and dipped, at most general stores. Most candles in Canada were made of tallow, which was derived from the fat of mutton, beef and sometimes pork. Every good housekeeper saved every bit of fat for candlemaking in the autumn. Tallow candles were very susceptible to being eaten by mice and/or rats, and consequently they were kept in an enclosed box called a candle safe, usually hung on the wall of the kitchen close to the tinder box. Candles that were made of beeswax and tallow were far superior. This combination was quite common in Canada. They burned more slowly and brightly, and were more fragrant, and thus presented several practical advantages over tallow candles. Candles made solely of beeswax were of course ideal, but these were primarily reserved for use in churches. The wick of the candle was often homemade from spun milkweed or from the fibres of a hemp plant; cotton wicks could be purchased in a store. In the 1830s, candles were increasingly made of spermaceti (oil from the head of a sperm whale). They were superior in quality, less likely to "gutter", but too costly for most Canadian households. There was also the development of the stearine candle, made from chemically purified vegetable or animal fats. Despite these innovations, the tallow candle remained the most common candle throughout Canada. This continued to be the case until the development of paraffin, a by-product of petroleum that emerged as the dominant material in candlemaking and remains to this day the universal candle wax.

Jessica Brodribb

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Item: CAST-IRON HEATING STOVE
Date: c. 1890s
Dimensions: approx. 61 cm long and 30.5 cm high (the pipe is about 45.7 cm high)

Comments: This iron heating stove was made in Amherst, Nova Scotia by Robb Engineering, a well-established foundry that commenced operations as the Alexander Robb Company in 1870. The company produced a range of cooking, box and parlour stoves. This stove is utilitarian in appearance, although there are some geometric designs along the sides and a floral motif ornamenting the curved legs. This plain decoration was typical of the more conservative Canadian stove designs; their fashionable American counterparts were far more exuberant with their classical mouldings and scenic panels. The extension at the front caught the overflow of ashes while the register wheel provided a draught. This model bears a resemblance to the small box stoves of the early 19th century which were placed in the parlour on a hearth of brick or sheet-iron. Usually the stove pipe extended through the ceiling to carry heat to the sleeping quarters.

Heating the home has always been of central importance to Canadians. In the early years, it was literally a matter of life and death. Fireplaces were used to heat houses before the iron stove but were far from perfect and "...the problem of house-heating occupied the minds of many of the earliest recorded Canadian inventors." Heating greatly improved with the introduction of cast iron. The earliest forms of cast-iron stoves were placed within the fireplace; they were designed for heating rather than cooking. The Franklin stove, invented by Benjamin Franklin in the mid-18th century, enjoyed widespread popularity. Franklin stoves (sometimes called Pennsylvania or American stoves) were cast and extensively used in the Maritimes. They originally burned wood and provided an efficient heat source. Eventually the open-hearth Franklin incorporated a grate for burning coal and double doors, which could be left open or closed. The popularity of stoves in the early 19th century was also heightened by the imposition of a government tax on fireplaces. One stove, even though it produced as much heat as two fireplaces, was taxed as one hearth. New Glasgow's A.F. Fraser, established in 1857, was the first full-time stove manufacturer in Nova Scotia. By the early 20th century, most Canadians converted to central heating, abandoning the traditional stove in each room and adopting the basement furnace which piped hot air or water.

Researched by Jessica Brodribb

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